The Rise of the Medieval Knights and the Religious Military Orders

The medieval knight is an exclusively European creation, of Christian origin. When discussing medieval knights, a clear distinction must be made between the religious military orders of the Crusades and the “ordinary” European knights.

Given the endemic violence of that period’s society, and the fact that armed men could commit any kind of abuse without being punished in any way, the Church intervened and saved the situation by imposing strict rules on the use of violence, forbidding its use and threatening with excommunication all those who committed acts of violence, especially against the defenceless. In doing so, the Church also calmed the bellicose nobles who wished to expand their power and possessions.

Thus, the proper chivalric ethic was born, from the religious canons imposed by the Church, through service owed to it, service carried to the point of self-sacrifice, especially when it came to defending the poor and the innocent.

Pope Gregory VII created a new model of holy warrior – the miles Sancti Petri – whereas until then only the concept of miles Christi (soldier of Christ) had existed, which referred to martyrs, priests, and monks. The new concept aimed to include those who wished to serve the cause of Christianity with weapons in hand. The moment was well chosen, particularly in the context of the battles against the Arabs in the Iberian Peninsula and against European pagans in the Baltic region. The ethic of this new type of knight was based on principles of bravery, prudence, wisdom, experience, group spirit, solidarity, and brotherly friendship.

Future knights, generally from noble or very wealthy families, acquired the rank of page at the age of 7 and were sent to a noble court, usually that of the family’s overlord (a great noble, a relative, or even the monarch’s court), where they learned good manners, the liberal arts, courtesy towards ladies, some literacy – reading, writing, possibly Latin and Greek – how to serve at their lord’s table, and how to care for horses. At 14 they became squires and were entrusted to a knight, who thoroughly trained them in the art of war. Much of this training took place at the hunt, where the squire learned to shoot the bow and crossbow, even if he would never use these weapons in battle! If he proved fit, at around 18–21 years old, the young man was knighted, usually before a battle, or after a battle if he had earned this honour through combat.

The knighting ceremony had very clear rules, and from the 12th–13th centuries – the classical period and the height of the knightly institution – it became akin to a religious sacrament. The knight’s beard and hair were cut, and he was given the symbols of his new status: the white tunic, signifying purity; the red cloak, signifying the blood he was ready to shed for Christ; the white belt; the gilded spurs, signifying the swiftness with which he would fulfil his divine mission; the brown stockings, symbolising the earth to which he would return; the black footwear. He was touched on the shoulders with a sword, or received a ritual blow – alapa militaris – with the right hand on the neck or nape, the last blow in his life that he was allowed to receive without retaliating, also symbolising awakening from evil dreams into his new life. The new knight bathed in purification, then slept a restorative sleep, from which he awoke a different man, a man of Christendom’s holy army, his former life completely left behind. Some spent the night in a chapel or church, praying with the sword laid upon the altar. He received the knight’s weapons, which from then on would be his companions in battle, life, and death.

As armament, every knight carried a lance, a straight sword with double-edged blade and pointed tip, a shield – which varied in shape, from round to oval, rectangular, teardrop-shaped, or triangular. At his belt also hung a straight dagger, in case the knight lost his weapons in battle in extremis. Of course, the “piece” of equipment that defined him as a knight was the horse, fitted with a saddle. Without horse and saddle, the knight would have been a mere infantryman… The horse was covered, especially in tournaments, with a large piece of fabric called a valtrap, which also bore the knight’s coat of arms or other symbolic insignia.

Alongside the knight there were his squire(s) and, depending on his rank and wealth, other armed retainers. For recognition in battle, each knight’s coat of arms (blazon) was displayed on his shield, on his tabard, and sometimes on the valtrap.

After the First Crusade (1096–1099), the monastic military orders, the religious knightly orders, were born in the Holy Land, based on principles of austerity and asceticism. The most famous were the orders of the Templars, the Teutonic Knights, and the Knights Hospitaller, the latter also known as the Knights of St John, of Rhodes, or of Malta. Other such religious orders arose in the Iberian Peninsula – the Orders of Calatrava, Alcántara, and Santiago – and in the Baltic region – the Livonian Order.

These orders were made up of both clerics and laymen, who were divided into military and civilian members. The military were, in turn, divided into knights and servientes – sergeants/servants. All members were obliged, upon admission to the order, to take vows of combat, chastity, obedience, and poverty, the orders being regarded as militia Christi – the army of Christ. Knights also had to show permanent martial ardour and unwavering Christian faith. The oath was solemn and taken within ceremonial frameworks.

Within the military religious orders, there was a very clear hierarchical structure, headed by a Grand Master. The ranks of the orders included great aristocrats, knights, members of knightly families, free men or partly free men from other social classes. Local troops were also recruited, and mercenaries and volunteers were accepted. The vows were of chastity and renunciation of carnal desires, total obedience to the Order, and poverty. Those who were not knights were called servientes, a word translated as “sergeant”, but which actually means servant, retainer. Among the motives for joining such an order were the desire to fight for Christendom, amorous/social/familial disillusionments, penitence, poverty, or the pursuit of a career. The vows were for life, unlike those of ordinary crusaders, who swore for a limited term, for as long as the campaign lasted or as long as they were engaged.